Media Law in South Africa

The Press Freedom Commission (PFC) was launched in July 2011 by the press industry representative body, Print Media South Africa and the South African National Editors Forum in order to set up a suitable regulatory media system for South Africa (Press Freedom Commission, 2012: 1). The Press Freedom Commission that was held earlier this year assessed all measures concerning co-regulation, self-regulation, independent regulation and state regulation so as to ensure that the media is accountable to the public that they serve and similarly to ensure the protection of press freedom (Press Freedom Commission, 2012: 1).This year, the PFC recommended that an independent co-regulatory system , which does not include State participation, would best suit the country. This would mean that the press are accountable to serve in interest of the population (Press Freedom Commission, 2012: 1). With reference to Julie Reid’s and Julie Posetti’s article in the Rhodes Journalism Review, I aim to evaluate various contexts and henceforth provide reasons for why I am in accordance with the co-regulation of the media.Under the South African Constitution, in the Bill of Rights (1996) it is stated that every person has a right to freedom of expression, which includes freedom of press and the media, the freedom to receive or impart information or ideas, freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom and freedom of scientific research (Act no. : 108 of 1996). Henceforth press freedom means the autonomy to communicate ideas, opinions and information without restraint.The media are a public trust with the ability to inform and influence and because of this power they should serve to represent the interests of the citizens without external institutional constraints. When analyzing freedom of the press with the current regulatory system, there are two powerful institutions in society which cannot be ignored, that is political and economic power. Under apartheid the freedom of the press was heavily restricted.The Newspapers Registration and Imprint Act of 1985, required that all newspapers had to be registered and conform to a strict code of conduct. In addition newspapers were also required to lodge R40 000 as a deposit before they could publish, as a result the act silenced many liberal newspapers (Manoim, 1996: 7). With the transition into a new democracy, self-regulation of the media was employed to uphold freedom of expression, a pivotal component of a true democracy.Self-regulation is a system that operates on self imposed rules by the media, it consists only of representatives of the media profession who use the Journalistic Codes and Ethics as a guideline (Reid, 2012: 1). The relationship between the government/ state and the media is one of conflict and dependency because on the one hand, the media are commonly referred to as the ‘unofficial opposition’ to the government.As ‘watchdogs’ they make public a range of issues concerning health care, education, corruption, unemployment etc and because of these disclosures the government repeatedly attempt to censor their biggest critic. As such, the government proposed a Media Tribunal, which could lead to the forced registration of all newspapers, the registration of all journalists and punitive fines(Reid, 2012: 1). The tribunal exemplifies the government’s hostility towards the media and it clearly epitomizes the Newspapers Registration and Imprint Act of 1985 .Another example constitutes as the Protection of Information Bill which will allow the government to classify specific information which is deemed harmful to the â€Å"national interest†. The government have suggested media-unfriendly laws which pose a threat to attack the heart of the struggle for democracy (Reid, 2012: 1). On the other hand, however, the media are dependent on the government for information and official materials and similarly the government depends on the media to produce important information to their citizens.It is evident that the media plays a large role in making public the successes and the failures of the government, however, I argue that a change in the regulatory system could improve the relationship between the two so that the media do not have their own agendas for the information they produce, but they produce that which of interest of the public that they serve. Although self-regulation of the press was once highly valued, examples like the Murdoch scandal have shown that the system is weak and does not assure the accountability of the press.Journalists from the News of the World were accused of phone hacking, police bribery and using unethical means to obtain ‘public interest’ stories (Posetti, 2012: 19). The self-regulatory system allows for journalists to operate freely without state interference and although there haven’t been any situations like the aforementioned unethical proceedings in South Africa, the regulatory system does not fulfill the democratic vitality of the inclusion of wider population (Reid, 2012: 18). For many years under the rapacious system of apartheid, the black population was silenced, their grievances and njustices undocumented. In this new democracy, the media are still seen to cater for the interests of the elite, this can be conceptualized in Noam Chomsky and Edward. S. Herman’s â€Å"propaganda model†. Granted the media does deliver information to serve the interests of its citizens, news coverage is frequently tailored to what suits the corporate. The media are a profit-seeking institution, funded by advertisers and are (sometimes) owned by private investors, this can henceforth lead to the media placing profit above public interest (Manoim, 1996: 4).An example of this can be seen in various newspapers during the apartheid era, particularly the Business Day. The Business Day embraced a conservative liberal take on the apartheid system. Th e reporting that the Business Day encompassed relied on keeping an apolitical stance and avoided negative consequences of full disclosure. The newspaper did not report on any issues negative aspects of the apartheid system or its effects on the population and the reason for this was to gain more revenue than to possibly create controversy (Manoim, 1996: 4).Another example of this was the recent Marikana shootings, wherein the first pieces of information distributed by the media through print and broadcast, told a story of a violent, armed and angry mob, charging towards apprehensive policemen who then shot the mobsters from afar, in fear of their lives (Johnson, 2012: 1). At least 36 miners were shot dead and because of the inadequate coverage by the media, many people were under the impression that the police action was proportional to the threat posed by the miners.It wasn’t until Greg Marinovich went on to publish shocking findings about the deaths of the Marikana minors, in his article â€Å"The murder fields of Marikana: The cold murder fields of Marikana† (Marinovich, 2012: 1). The article made public that some of the miners had been shot by close range (execution style) and others crushed by police vehicles, thus providing proof that the police did not act in fear, but instead hand the upper hand and viciously killed the miners.In many of the articles published, before Marinovich’s, statements were mainly one sided, comprised of policemen, the mining management and government official (Manoim, 1996: 7). It can be understood that many journalists and news firms did not accurately report on the Marikana shootings because they did not want to cause controversy and did not want to lose revenue. With regards to the aforementioned relationships between the media and political/ economic institutions within the self-regulatory system, I argue that the system is clearly weak.There is indeed more freedom of speech with this system, however, t he press aren’t held accountable to the citizens that they serve, the press can be seen to accommodate only the elites and silence the people. For these reasons and the above examples, in my opinion it is clear that the self-regulatory system in inadequate for a new democracy such as ours. The proposed system of independent co-regulation without state or government intervention will best serve the freedom of the press in our country.The system will consist of members of the public (e. g: academics, civil society organizations etc. ) and members of the press industry therefore sufficiently creating integration between the press and the society that it serves (Reid, 2012: 18). The independent system as well as journalists will henceforth be accountable to the public. The co-regulatory system will allow regulatory rules to be created by more than one stakeholder and it will have independence from industries (Press Freedom Commission, 2012: 1).The system should sufficiently allow members of the public and the press to engage with reports made by the independent body. This nature of transparency will build a close relationship between the public and the media and henceforth it will encourage the media to be accountable to the citizens that it serves (Reid, 2012: 18). I believe that the increased integration between the public and the press will give the once unheard voices of the public a platform for their opinions furthermore it will directly assist the country on the road to true democracy.The PFC suggests that the system will introduce a more efficient framework for dealing with sensitive matters especially when dealing with children. There will also be a be a method of â€Å"space fines† which will consist of monetary fines, summons or rulings for any offences made by the press (Press Freedom Commission, 2012: 1). The co-regulatory system proposed by the Press Freedom Commission is not an attack at the freedom of the press, rather, it is very nec essary to strengthen the system of the press in South Africa.Co-regulation will not only serve the public because of the system’s transparency and allowance for integration but it could also improve the quality and credibility of journalism in the country. The marginalized and excluded persons of this country need an environment where they are able to make public their discrepancies and regarding the extensive reception to the current self-regulation it is evident there needs to be a change in the system.In my opinion co-regulation will ensure the greatest independence from different influential institutions, it will reinforce the accountability the press should have for the citizens, it will allow for press freedom and furthermore it will assist to uphold the principles of a democracy. References: Manoim, I. 1996. You Have Been Warned: The First Ten Years of The Mail & Guardian. Penguin Books: South Africa. Posetti, J. 2012. Media Regulation, Murdoch and the Journalism Wars of Oz. Rhodes Journalism Review. Press Freedom Commission, 2012.What the Press Commission recommends. Retrieved from http://www. politicsweb. co. za/politicsweb/view/politicsweb/en/page71656? oid=294997&sn=Detail on 11/01/1012 Reid, J. 2012. Press Freedom in South Africa and why self-regulation is best. Daily Maverick. Retrieved from http://dailymaverick. co. za/opinionista/2012-01-26-press-freedom-in-south-africa-and-why-self-regulation-is-best on 11/01/2012. Reid, J. 2012. What will co-regulation mean? The Press Freedom Commission report and its implications for the regulation of journalism. Rhodes Journalism Review.

Lyric Poetry Red Taylor Swift

Taylor Swift's song â€Å"Red† is very joyful even though her words are sometimes gloomy because she misses what she use to have. She is speaking about someone who she can not forget because of all the good memories they have with each other. Taylor Swift ‘s use of similes, imagery and alliteration in her song â€Å"Red† helps portray the good and bad about loving someone that is not around any more. Taylor Swifts uses similes through out her writing to make you feel her happiness and struggles. â€Å"Loving him is like driving a new maserati down a dead end street,† tells you that happiness was damaging her relationship.It be great to have a maserati just to have it, with no where to go but, it is hurting our earth. Loving him was unnecessary so it ended up hurting her. When Swift says, â€Å"Memorizing him was as easy as knowing all the words to your old favorite song,† she shows how much she misses having this person around. When a song stops play ing for a while but, then it comes on again and the mind still remembers all the words its like an old friend popping back into the mind. When the mind remembers someone they loved all of the good and bad memories with that person can be stuck in the head.Taylor Swift's similes are very meaningful and can make you feel mixed emotions. Imagery is used many different times through out the song and gives a dark but still happy mood. â€Å"Missing him was dark grey all alone,† is very depressing because this person is gone. Now she is lonely because she feels like she is stuck in the dark all lone. Taylor Swift also says, â€Å"Losing him was blue like I never known. † This is very gloomy because it is the saddest she has ever been. She did not even know she could feel this terrible. When she says, â€Å"Loving him was Red,† it make the song much happier.It gives off this bright, cheerful mood saying even though she felt terrible after the relationship the time she had loving him was worth it. The way Taylor Swift uses imagery makes the reader feel her pain. Taylor Swift also used alliteration in her writing to emphasize certain words. When Swift says,† Cause love was like driving a new maserati down a dead and street,† lots of focus is drawn to the words â€Å"driving,† â€Å"down,† and â€Å"dead. † She felt like this relationship was dyeing and was going down hill. In the quote â€Å"Once you're already flying through the free fall,† the words flying,† â€Å"free,† and â€Å"fall,† stand out. She feels like she has fallen head over heels and could not stop loving this person even if she wanted to. Swift wanted those words to stand out so the reader felt her passion. Taylor Swfit's use of alliteration helps the reader understands how strong her feelings are for this person. Taylor Swift used so many poetic elements to help the reader feel many different emotions. She used a variety of similes, imagery, and alliteration through out her writing. Taylor Swift's writing lets the reader into her head and rollercoaster of emotions.

Intermediate certificate in Human Resource Management Essay

Is the criticism of HR in the article justified? Yes and no! The quote in the article from Dona Roche-Tarry is fairly damning. She states the HR team should be equally responsible as they work alongside the CEO and MDs to recommend strategies for pay and bonuses. Whilst HR may work alongside the senior decision makers, they can only make recommendations. The ultimate decision and power lies with the CEO. However, another perspective could be that HR need to be influencers, and should be more efficient at managing upwards. What are the main accusations being laid at the door of HR in this scenario in terms of its competence? Not being responsive Lack of knowledge Being unethical What are the implications for HR here in relation to professional ethics, integrity and confidentiality? The main implication is being seen to be unethical to stakeholders. This could result in HR being seen as not communicating and could have a negative impact on how people perceive HR to be importance wise. Integrity is also damaged by not being seen to have provided a voice in relation to political equality. How might HR been able to influence the situation more? By managing relationships better across hierarchies, and also by forward planning, being market savvy, and risk management. Predicting the issues  before they arose and either finding ways to avoid them or developing damage limitation scenarios and plans. What other key behaviours from the CIPD’s HR professional map do you think are critical here for HR to display? Skilled influencer Courage to challenge Personally credible Collaborative What learning can HR take away from this experience/situation? The main learning is to be more responsive, and take more of an active role in discussions regarding important issues such as renumeration Being seen to consult stakeholders and provide senior stakeholders with a more accurate company and market view. Improved communication across all levels needs to be implemented.

Book review Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Book review - Assignment Example Despite being an anarchist, he strongly opposed the use of violence to solve the problems facing society. Rather, he believed that the society could be reformed through active non-violence. The story in the novel The Adventures of Caleb Williams revolves around Caleb, who despite being a poor orphan, manages to get better education. He later earns a lot of respect from community members owing to his enlightenment. The novel, basically, gives an account of the position taken by Caleb with respect to the wealthiest man in the neighborhood, Mr. Falkland (Godwin 2004, p.5). The fact that Mr. Falkland has a lot of wealth in the village makes his respectable to the extent that villagers, including Caleb, worship him. Nevertheless, Caleb appears to be very suspicious of Mr. Falkland. He believes that Mr. Falkland engages in unethical activities. As a result, Caleb decides to investigate Mr. Falkland’s past only to unearth some damning information. In the novel The Adventures of Caleb William, Godwin as the author tries to expose the rot in the political and social spheres of England during the 18th century (Godwin 2004, p.6). Godwin exposes vices by giving an overview of the injustices that were the orders of the day in the prison system. He also exposes the oppression of peasants by landlords, the oppression of the poor by the elite, as well the oppression of common citizens by government. The author reveals the injustice of the political and social system through various scenes. For example, he exposes an incident in which Mr. Falkland, knowingly and willingly, witnesses the execution of two innocent men for a crime that he committed himself. This is brought out when Caleb exposes the secret murder of Tyrrel, one of the landlords, by Falkland. Immediately after the murder, Caleb informs the public that Falkland used his power and wealth to blame two innocent men for the murder that led to the execution of the two innocent men (Godwin 2004, p.9). Nevertheless, when Falkland discovers that Caleb knows the truth about the incident, he threatens Caleb with grave consequences, warning him against exposing him further to the public. Despite the threats that he receives from Falkland, Caleb goes ahead to expose murder to the public, a move that puts him at loggerheads with Falkland. Caleb ends up paying the price of revealing the truth when Falkland implants jewelry in his bag later accusing him of being a thief (Godwin 2004, p.16). Without the authorities carrying proper and impartial investigations, Caleb ends up in prison. After staying in prison for a while, Caleb makes a daring escape but he is later recaptured in the streets of London. However, his release from prison comes quick with the intervention of Falkland. Falkland actually uses his power and wealth to manipulate Caleb’s release from prison (Godwin 2004, p.20) after he senses that he is in jeopardy of revelation of his deeds to a greater extent if he keeps Caleb in prison. As a result, Caleb is released from prison without a trial. This shows how injustice, impunity, and corruption were rife in the society during the time that the novel was written. Godwin’s fictional story gives a clear depiction of painful and intolerable oppression and the kind of bullying that the good people of 18th century were subjected to in their pursuit for justice and equality. Despite being set

Macro Economics-- Redbox Price Hike Could Dodge Netflix Outrage Essay

Macro Economics-- Redbox Price Hike Could Dodge Netflix Outrage - Essay Example Because the price has increased, it is reasonable to expect that the quantity demanded will decrease. This is because the market demand will adjust to the increased prices by not purchasing the same amount of DVDs as before. However, if demand is high enough, then quantity will remain relatively the same. This is because a competitor, Netflix, raised its prices by even more—60%. Even though consumers may not like the price hike, they may have no other option but to continue using Redbox’s services. I think that Redbox is doing the right thing by raising their prices because they need to make a profit. Because operating costs have risen, it is only natural to pass on that increase to customers. Redbox needs to be aware that its customer base may fall due to this announcement. If so, Redbox needs to decrease its prices marginally so that market equilibrium can be

Jurisdiction In The Case Of a Bank About To Enter Into a Loan Essay

Jurisdiction In The Case Of a Bank About To Enter Into a Loan Agreement with A Foreign Company - Essay Example This paper illustrates that the agreement as to which country shall have jurisdiction of the contract should be clearly stated therein to avoid the ambiguity of the provisions. Under the recent ruling of Marconi Communications International Limited v PT Pan Indonesia Bank Limited TBK (2005) AER (D) 389, the Court of Appeals dealt with the jurisdiction of the letter of credit. Under this contract, it was specifically stated that the governing law would be English law. However, there was a provision in the contract itself, which gave an indication for confirmation of the letters of credit. The conflict now in this case is in the interpretation of the contract as to whether or not Article 4(2)3 of the Convention would apply since although the forum specifically chose by the parties in England, the perfection of the contract is more closely connected with the other country which is Indonesia as the confirming bank is located in that country. Another argument presented in this case is the application of Article 4(5)4. Now, therefore, the court has to resolve whether or not to use Article 4(5) and disregard Article 4(2). In its resolution, the Court ruled that Article 4(5) should apply therefore the law of England should be the governing law as provided for in the contract. Most interesting in this case is the Court’s recommendations that â€Å"the same system of law should govern the co-existing contracts between (a) the issuing bank and the beneficiary, (b) the confirming bank and the beneficiary and (c) the issuing bank and the confirming bank.

Reflection of Slingshot Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Reflection of Slingshot - Essay Example All the elements to make faster cars were present including the know how to build one. It all begun in Southern California in the 1940s coming from depression with children coming out of age. In addition, United States just came from war where most of its youngsters came from the military who received education from the military on how to create hot rods. Through this education from the military, they were able to incorporate better techniques to make faster cars such as hot rods which eventually evolve to drag race cars. And of course given with a strong economy and know how about motors (cars were invented in the United States) these youths with plenty of energy, spare cash and ingenuity created fast cars which were known as slingshots. Of course, it was first built to be crude just like the Ford’s T-Model and others resembles a sedan only that they ran faster. The races were first done in the street (and therefore illegal) until it evolved to an activity in the 1950s. It further evolved where regulatory bodies were established as well the support of big companies that made the sport not only a successful spectator sport but also a successful commercial sport. The evolution of drag racing to become a spectator sport can be likened to any other endeavor be it in sport, organization or companies. It started as a hobby or a recreation and engaged by few enthusiasts. Over time and with energy and support, it eventually grew and embraced by everybody to become a successful sport. Reflecting on this development gives one an idea that anything really is possible given the talent, inclination, energy and resources. As a student, it inspires us that given the know-how, drive and resources, we can also achieve the same feat albeit at a lesser extent. The knowledge learned by those who started the sport came from the military in the same manner

Civil War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Civil War - Essay Example Back in the last decade of the 20th century, Somali was engrossed in a civil war. The mood on the ground was that the government of Siad Barre becoming too harsh to the people. Whether such claims were true or not, what followed was one of the longest and perhaps bloodiest civil war ever witnessed on the African continent. Probably the only country that had also been through such a long period of war is now the newly independent Southern Sudan. Thanks to Kenya and AMISOM (African Mission in Somali) troops, the Somali people recently voted in a new parliament that successfully voted for a new president. Things appear to be poised for changes but that is for history to judge. It is vital to analyze the context of the civil war in Somali prior to the recent developments. Such an analysis will take into consideration the humanitarian crisis. Even so, this is not to imply that the process towards a stable Somalia had been a smooth transition. The Somali civil war case has been one that ha s had far-reaching effects immediately after the overthrowing of Barre’s government in 1991. Being a country that is made up of clans, what erupted in the initial period was a contest for dominance by all the major clans. It was almost practically impossible trying to persuade any clan lord to visualize a united Somali with him on the periphery. I use "him" because under sharia law, some positions of leadership are gender governed and Somali being a predominantly Muslim nation, the rule applies (Munene, 2012).

Discussion 6 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Discussion 6 - Research Paper Example The reasons for this gendered violence range from many factors, from psychological to economical reasons, and I will attempt to elaborate more on these triggers of violence and also offer solutions marital partners can take to put an end to domestic partner violence. Firestone claims that there are two very important psychological factors that influence why domestic partner violence occurs; a "destructive thought process," and what is called a "fantasy bond," (Firestone, n.p). The destructive thought process that Firestone mentions refers to the case where the abuser has this thought in his head that he/she must abuse their partner; the abuser keeps imagining negative things that he/she assumes that their partner is thinking of them, for instance, "She/he is controlling you. Dont let her/him act like you are weak," (Firestone, n.p). In my opinion, men are more likely to act upon this inner voice than are women, because there are external pressures from society on men to act a certain way; men today are still expected to be strong and dominant and powerful, and when imagine that their wives are acting in a way that makes them look unmanly, they lash out at their wives on the whims of this "inner voice," (Firestone, n.p). Also, the "fantasy bond" that Firestone mentions, refers to the belief a person has that he/she is only complete with their partner; this belief also supports the idea that one person in the relationship has power over the other (Firestone, n.p). For me, I believe men like to imagine that they are in control in this "fantasy bond," since patriarchal values extol them to be more powerful than women; this entitles men to physically abuse their partners. Panda and Agarwal offer an economic reason for why men are more likely to physically abuse their female partners; for him, womens economic dependence on men sets the scene for them being physically abused, (Panda & Agarwal, page 824). He claims for example that when a woman has her own house, the

The Catholic Church Essay Example for Free

The Catholic Church Essay The Iroquois Confederacy, an association of six linguistically related tribes in the northeastern woodlands, was a sophisticated society of some 5,500 people when the first white explorers encountered it at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The 1990 Census counted 49,038 Iroquois living in the United States, making them the countrys eighth most populous Native American group. Although Iroquoian tribes own seven reservations in New York state and one in Wisconsin, the majority of the people live off the reservations. An additional 5,000 Iroquois reside in Canada, where there are two Iroquoian reservations. The people are not averse to adopting new technology when it is beneficial, but they want to maintain their own traditional identity. INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP CONTRIBUTIONS Although disputed by some, there is significant evidence that the Iroquois Confederacy served as a model or inspiration for the U. S. Constitution. Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine were well acquainted with the League. John Rutledge, chairman of the committee that wrote the first draft of the Constitution, began the process by quoting some passages from the Haudenosaunee Great Law. The Iroquois form of government was based on democracy and personal freedom, and included elements equivalent to the modern political tools of initiative, referendum, and recall. In 1987 Senator Daniel Inouye sponsored a resolution that would commemorate the Iroquois contributions to the formation of the federal government. Many Iroquois people have made notable contributions to society and culture that transcend political boundaries. A dramatic example is Oren Lyons (1930– ), an Onondaga chief who has led political delegations to numerous countries in support of the rights of indigenous people. Twice named an All-American lacrosse goal-keeper, he led his 1957 team at Syracuse University to an undefeated season and was eventually enrolled in the sports Hall of Fame. He was a successful amateur boxer in both the U. S. Army and in the Golden Gloves competition. He worked as a commercial artist for several years before returning to the reservation to assume his position as faithkeeper. An author and illustrator, he has served as Chairman of American Studies at the State University of New York (SUNY) at Buffalo and as publisher of Daybreak, a national quarterly newspaper of Native American views. In 1992 he became the first indigenous leader to have addressed the United Nations General Assembly. Arden, Harvey. The Fire That Never Dies, National Geographic, September 1987. Axtell, James. The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. A Basic Call to Consciousness. Rooseveltown, NY: Akwesasne Notes, 1978. Bruchac, Joseph. New Voices from the Longhouse: An Anthology of Contemporary Iroquois Writing. Greenfield Center, NY: Greenfield Review Press, 1989. Fenton, Willam N. The Great Law and the Long-house: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998. Graymont, Barbara. The Iroquois. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. Indian Roots of American Democracy, Northeast Indian Quarterly, edited by Jose Barreiro. Winter/Spring, 1987/1988. An Iroquois Source Book, Volumes 1 and 2, edited by Elisabeth Tooker. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. , 1985. Iroquois Women: An Anthology, edited by W. G. Spittal. Ohsweken, Ontario: Iroqrafts Ltd, 1990. Johnson, Elias. Legends, Traditions and Laws of the Iroquois, or Six Nations, and History of the Tuscarora Indians. New York: AMS Press, 1978 (reprint of 1881 edition). Josephy, Alvin M. , Jr. Now That the Buffalos Gone: A Study of Todays American Indians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982. Snow, Dean R. The Iroquois. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1996. Tooker, Elisabeth. Lewis H. Morgan on Iroquois Material Culture. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994. http://www. ipoaa. com/iroquois_constitution_united_states. htm The Effect of the Iroquois Constitution on the United States Constitution originally titled The United States Constitution: Is it a Native American Myth? by Janet L. Daly Fitchburg State College (1997) The United States Constitution was influenced by the concepts and the principles contained in the Iroquois Indian Confederacy form of governance which was founded in Native American mythology. Several different areas must be discussed in order to substantiate this premise that the Native Americans that arrived on the North American continent around 12,000 years ago did indeed influence the very basis of the United States governmental system which is written in the form of the United States Constitution. One of the first concepts which must be explored is the tradition of the Iroquois League, since the basis of the thesis is that the League tradition preceded and influenced the thinking of the Founding Fathers. The next topics must include a discussion of opinions and supporting details that the Iroquoian Confederacy method of governance did influence the development of the U. S. Constitution and specifically how key contributors to the writing of the Constitution, including Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, were brought into the Native American sphere of thinking. Finally, a comparison of the League Tradition and several areas of the U. S. Constitution will show clearly that the Native American Myth lives on even though the Native American population has been drastically diminished by the very Country which it helped to found. The Iroquois League tradition was first written down in an Iroquois language format in 1912 by anthropologist Alexander A. Goldenweiser. 1 This handwritten transcript as dictated by Chief John Arthur Gibson has been recently (1992) newly elicited, edited and translated by Hanni Woodbury in collaboration with Reg Henry and Harry Webster with the resultant fluently reading legend of the foundation of the League of the Iroquois. Chief John Gibson, born in 1849 was unquestionably the greatest mind of his generation among the Six Nations [who] became the greatest living source on Iroquois culture at the turn of the century. 2 Chief Gibson was appointed a member of a committee of chiefs that undertook the task of codifying the League Tradition because of the high regard by his own people for his knowledge of the League traditions and the various rituals connected with them. 3 What follows is a condensed version of the League Tradition as put forth in the work translated by Hanni Woodbury which will provide a general overview of the mythology which lead to the Tradition and the components of the Tradition which allowed a working unification system for the Iroquois Confederacy. This Confederacy contained the original Five Nations of the Confederacy which included the Seneca, Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida and Cayuga and in 1715 increased to Six Nations with the inclusion of the Tuscaroras. Feuding and warfare were endemic in the land of the Mohawks which was located on the northern shore of Lake Ontario. A mother Kahetoktha (End of the Field) takes her daughter Kahetehsuk (She Walks Ahead) to live in a remote area of bush in order to protect her child. After living there a considerable amount of time the daughter becomes pregnant and the Mother accuses her daughter of wrongdoing. The Mother then has a dream from the messenger of the Great Spirit which reveals her daughter and not been with a man and will have a divine birth and the boy child to be born will be called Tekanawita and his life will be devoted to promoting peace among men. After the dream message is received the Mother and daughter reconcile and the son is born as prophesied. The boy grows quickly and when he is a young man Tekanawita returns to his mothers and grandmothers former settlement to announce to their people the Good Message (kaihwiyoh), the Power (katshatstehsae) and the Peace (shenu) which are the three concepts that together spell out the call to unify the separate nations of the Iriquois. 4 Tekanawita visits the then separate nations and convinces them through demonstrating some miraculous feats. One such trial proposed by the Mohawk Nation was forTekanawita to sit atop a tree next to the river. The tree would then be cut down and Tekanawita would be thrown into the cold raging waters. If he emerged the next day alive this would be proof that he was the true messenger of the Great Spirit and the Good Message, the Power and the Peace would be accepted. When he successfully emerges the next day from the waters the Mohawk tribe is convinced. The five nations are receptive to the message and Tekanawita proceeds to frame the central concepts of the Great Law and organizes the Confederacy Council on the basis of principles which underlie Iroquois social structure. He divides the five nations into moieties related to one another as fathers (Mohawk, Onondaga and Seneca) and sons (Oneida and Cayuga). 5 The decision making process which was to be followed involved the Mohawk Nation considering the issue and after a consensus is reached within the Nation, V the question was to be passed to their moiety brother, the Seneca who reach a consensus. There is to be an attempt to consolidate their decision with that of the Mohawk. If two groups agree they are to appoint a speaker for the moiety who movesacross the fireto bring the opinion and the question to the Oneida. The Oneida are to pass the question on to the Cayuga and if the two groups reach consensus the issue is to be passed back across the fire to the Mohawk who present the outcome to the firekeepers, the Onondagas. The Onondagas then consider the issue and if they agree with the consensus reached by the other four nations, they ratify the opinion. 6 However, if there are divergent opinions from the Mohawk and Seneca, both opinions are to be handed across the fire to the Oneida and Cayuga to be considered equally. If the Oneida and Cayuga are split in opinion then both opinions must be handed on to the firekeepers. The Firekeepers can break the tie by choosing one opinion over the other. If the Oneida and Cayuga agree wit just one of the opinions handed to them by the Mohawk and Seneca, they return this opinion to the latter, and the speaker for the Mohawk and Seneca will present the opinions to the firekeepers, with an explanation of the outcome. The Onondaga consider the issue together with the results arrived at among the other nations, and the final decision will be announced. 7 After establishing the vital decision making process to be followed Tekanawita establishes the symbolism of the central hearth, that is the Confederacy fire, whose smoke will rise, the beautiful smoke, piercing the sky. 8 At the central fire he planted a tree a great white pine that put forth white roots East, West, North and South. Each nation would contribute one arrow to form a single strong bundle bound together with the sinew of a deer and as joined were to represent the Confederacy solidarity. Tekanawita addressed the Nations with the message that all Nations exercise equal authority in the Confederacy and that as individuals the Chiefs the tall trunks of the Confederacy are all equal in status. He then warned that if the arrows of the Nations are withdrawn from the bundle that represent the power of their solidarity, the bundle of arrows will weaken. 9 After describing the basic workings of the Confederacy, Tekanawita called a lengthy recess, and members of the council returned to their settlements to inform the people of the Confederacy of the formation and to determine the existing organization of lineages and clans in their respective nations, and to select in terms of their lineage affiliations more candidates for the positions on the council. Fifty titles are eventually assigned by clan and were assigned as follows- Mohawk 9, Seneca 8, Oneida 9, Cayuga -10, and Onondaga 14. The women of the clan or clan mothers were designated to be the holders of the clan titles and had control in large measure in the choice of successors. 10 The chiefs appointed were expected to maintain certain standards or there was to be a recall process that would be followed. At times of stress in the Confederacy, the hereditary Chiefs were to be allowed to appoint a Pine Tree Chief who would have special skills or qualities that could be of help to the hereditary chiefs in their difficult tasks. Pine Tree Chiefs were to be appointed for life and their titles were not to be passed on after their death. 11 The final major process that Tekanawita was to call for was the orderly replacement of the Chiefs upon their dismissal or more likely their death. This process was to allow an orderly transition of power within the Confederacy. This process consisted of the Clan Matron selecting a candidate and the women of the clan approving the selection followed by the chiefs who represent the tribal moiety, then the Chiefs of the Nation, then the Chiefs from her side of the Confederacy fire. At the Condolence Council the candidate was to be stood up for approval by the chiefs of the opposite moiety. The candidate is to be raised up by being crowned with the antlers of office representing his status as a Chief. 12 This was then the basic outline of the principles and philosophy of the Confederacy of the Iroquois. They agreed to stop fighting amongst themselves and to accept the Good Message that called upon them to find a peaceful way to resolve issues among the tribes. They were directed by the messenger of the Great Spirit to uphold certain standards of leadership and to fill vacancies in a peaceful manner. They were to stand together so that they may be stronger than one individual tribe. There is a plethora of opinion which concurs with the thesis that the Iroquois Confederacy had a strong influence on the final document which was to be the law of the land for the United States from its inception to present day. Some of these sources not only attribute the Iroquois Confederacy with significantly affecting the form of the Government of the United States but also with instilling the American independence mentality which would give rise to the impetus to make the initial break from the British. As the Indians were standing along the shore watching the Puritans arrive, the Indians carried with them a tradition of meeting and democracy, of free speech, of free thinking, of tolerance for each others differences of religion, of all those things which got attached to the Bill of Rights. 13 White leaders watched the method of government that the Iroquois utilized and they learned union and democracy from it. Historians are now beginning to admit what they must have been aware of, that the government of the United States is not patterned after something across the ocean where there was a belief in the divine right of kings and where the people had no voice, but it is patterned after the government of the People of the Long House, where all people, including both men and women were respected and took a part in their government. 14 The interaction between the colonial Americans and the Iroquois Confederacy began immediately upon the arrival of the Europeans. The importance of conciliating the powerful Confederacy was fully appreciated by the colonial authorities and great pains were taken to secure and retain the favor of the confederacy. Each successive governor announced his arrival to the Sachems of the League, and invited them to meet him in council, at an early day, to renew the covenant chain or agreement to work together peacefully. 15 Beginning in the early 1740s, Iroquois leaders strongly urged the colonists to form a federation similar to their own with the immediate benefit to their interests of having a unified management of Indian trade with resultant minimization of fraud, and a unity of the two peoples in the face of the cold war which was occurring between the English and the French. 16 This urging became a more forceful admonition when the Iroquois Chief Canssatego spoke to Pennsylvania officials gathered at Lancaster in 1744 with the following words: Our wise forefathers established Union and Amity between the Five Nations. This has made us formidable; this has given us great Weight and Authority with our neighboring Nations. We are a powerful Confederacy; and by your observing the same methods, our wise forefathers have taken, you will acquire such Strength and power. Therefore whatever befalls you, never fall our with one another. 17 A crucial step forward towards colonial American unification necessary for the eventual independence movement took place in Albany, New York in 1754. The Albany Plan was a landmark on the rough road that was to lead through the first Continental Congress and the Articles of Confederation and then to the Constitution of 1787. 18 On the eve of the Albany Congress, Franklin had a great deal of exposure to the imagery and political ideas of the Iroquois from first hand experience and from his study of Cadwallader Coldens History of the Five Nations. 19 Franklin met with both Colonial and Iroquois delegates to create a plan of unity that was in part derived from some of the tenets of the Great Law of the Iroquois. 20 During the discussions at Albany Franklin addressed the assemblage in words that freely acknowledged the Iroquois Confederacy as a model to build upon: It would be a strange thing if Six Nations of ignorant savages should be capable of forming such a union and be able to execute it in such a manner that it has subsisted ages and appears indissoluble, and yet that a like union should be impractical for ten or a dozen English colonies, to whom it is more necessary and must be more advantageous, and who cannot be supposed to want an equal understanding of their interest. 21 When Franklin proposed his plan of union before the Congress it had a Grand Council, a Speaker, and called for a general government under which each colony may retain its present constitution all nomenclature and concept derived from the Confederacy. 22 Franklins writings indicate that as he became more deeply involved with the Iroquois and other Indian peoples, he picked up ideas from them concerning not only federalism, but concepts of natural rights, the nature of society and mans place in it, the role of property in society, and other intellectual constructs that would eventually be called into service by Franklin as he and the other American revolutionaries shaped an 23 official ideology for the soon to be founded United States of America. 23 As the relationship between the colonies and Great Britain became more and more strained rebellion became a more realistic and viable alternative. In the eyes of the rebellious American Colonists, the Iroquois symbolized autonomy and a new American identity. 24 The intervening years between the Albany Plan of Union, the Articles of Confederation and the final Declaration of Independence included events such as the protest of the Stamp Act, the Boston Tea Party, formation of the Sons of Liberty. Each of these events drew upon the symbolism and philosophy of the Iroquois. The Sons of Liberty during the Stamp Act Crisis sent wampum belts to the Iroquois asking them to intercept the British moving down the Hudson. 25 The Boston Tea Party was carried out by Colonists dressed as Indians and the formation of the Sons of Liberty involved putting up a pine post called the Tree of Liberty, a direct transference of symbolism from the Iroquois symbol of Liberty. 26 On June 11, 1776, while the question of independence was being debated, twenty-one visiting Iroquois chiefs were actually lodged on the second floor of the Pennsylvania State House and were formally invited into the meeting hall of the Continental Congress. 27 During speeches delivered to the delegation of Native Americans they were addressed as Brothers and told of the delegates wish that the friendship between them would continue as long as the sun shall. shine and the water run. 28 The speech expressed hope that new Americans and Iroquois would act as one people, and have but one heart. 29 In a speech on July 26, 1776, James Wilson, delegate from Pennsylvania and future author of the first draft of the U. S. Constitution, argued forcefully for a confederation similar to the Iroquois League and asserted that Indians know the striking benefits of confederation and we have an example of it in the Union of the Six Nations. 30 In essence, Wilson, a friend of Franklin, believed that a strong confederacy like the Iroquois Confederacy was crucial to the development of a new nation and to maintaining a friendly relationship with the Indian populations. 31 Thomas Jefferson has also documented his appraisal of the attributes of the Native American concepts of morality and governance. In his writings Jefferson states: Their only controls are their manners, and that moral sense of right and wrong, which, like the sense of tasting and feeling in every man, makes a part of his nature. An offense against these is punished by contempt, by exclusion from society, or, where the case is serious, as that of murder, by the individuals whom it concerns. Imperfect as this species of coercion may seem, crimes are very rare among them; insomuch that were it made a question, whether no law, as among the savage American, or too much law, as among the civilized Europeans, submits man to the greatest evil, one who has seen both conditions of existence would pronounce it to be the last; and that the sheep are happier of themselves, than under care of the wolves. It will be said, the great societies cannot exist without government. The savages, therefore, break them into small ones. 32 Several areas of the Iroquois Constitution of the Five Nations which clearly have a parallel in the U. S. Constitution would be paragraph 84 dealing with the right of self-determination, paragraph 96, stipulating government by the people, by the consent of the governed, Paragraph 98 stating definite provision for such consent of the governed and controls by those governed and as a last example; Paragraph 99 guaranteeing freedom of religion. 33 Paragraph 33 stipulates the process by which a Chief shall be replaced upon dismissal or death. This systematic transmission of official rank was, in fact, the vital principle of the Iroquois Government. 34 The decision-making process of the League resembles that of a two-house congress in one body, with the older brothers and younger brother each comprising a side of the house. 35 The Onondagas filled something of an executive role, with a veto that could be overridden by the older and younger brothers in concert. 36 By implication in five places within the U. S. Constitution the impact of the Iroquois Confederacys continual urgings that the colonists should coordinate Indian negotiations and policies through a central authority were codified. 37 This codification is included in Article 11, Section 10, which prohibits the States from entering into treaties; Article 11, Section 2, which also prohibits States from entering into treaties; Article 11, Section 2, Clause 2, which defines the treaty process- Article VI, Section 2, which defines a treaty as the supreme law of the land; and finally, Article 111, Section 2, which grants the federal courts over U. S. citizenry who violate treaties. 38 These provisos were to find an impact on the Native American populations to present day and beyond. Even in light of the preceding discussion of the documented influence by the Iroquois Confederacy on the Founding Fathers and the resultant inclusion of many of the basic concepts and premises of the Iroquois Law within the U. S. Constitution, there is still an apparent oversight of the this impact in a scholarly work as recently as 1994. David N. Mayor in his discussion of the influences on the thinking of Thomas Jefferson in relation to his intellectual contribution to the U. S. Constitution mentions only Locke, Scottish moral sense of philosophy, deistic natural religion and the economic theories developed by British and French antimercantilists. 39 Not one mention or word of credit is given to the Native Americans who have so clearly been a major contributor in the formation of the American persona. Donald A. Grinde comments that ignoring the processes whereby Euroamericans created a new culture out of the American experience impoverishes everyone and gives an appearance that scholars are seeking to stop the process of de-Europeanizing America. 40 He specifically discusses Temple University anthropologist Dr. Elisabeth Tooker who contends that American Indian government figures not at all in the standard histories of the Constitution, nor in the documents on which they rest. 41 As a refutation of this premise Grinde goes on to quote many of the specifics of the writings generated by the founders some of which have been stated herein along with scholarly input with justification for their own viewpoint. It is truly a revelation as a student of history to study the impact that Native America had in the development of the United States of America. The fact that the Native Americans preceded the settlement of the Europeans and were a part of the innate character of the New World must logically affect the development of the new settlers. It is the ultimate irony that by the initial assistance given to the entering immigrants by the Native American population that they were in fact aiding in the ultimate decimation of their people, and the diminishment of their land and their mythological based form of government. Lesson 2 The Invasion of America Reading Assignment: Calloway, 67-136. Introduction: The Columbian encounter is arguably the most pivotal event in the history of the world. Neither Europe nor the Americas would be the same after this watershed event. This lesson highlights the merging of two previously distinct ecosystems and the devastating effect it would have on native peoples. Then it traces emergence of three European powers as they became dominant colonizers in North America. The lesson emphasizes that regardless of the variety of experiences Indians had in their relations with Europeans, they all shared irreversible changes in their cultures. This lesson will also introduce you to some of the primary sources related to the Spanish, French, and English invasions of North America and their consequences. Essay topics for Lesson 2 Write on one of the following topics or combine any of the topics into one. 1. What are the arguments for viewing Columbus as a hero? Villain? Where do you come down on this contentious issue? 2. What were the main differences in the motives of the Spanish, French, and English when they colonized the Americas? Was the European conquest of the Americas inevitable? Why or why not? 3. What role did Indian relationships play in the outcome of the various European invasions? Explain the â€Å"Columbian Exchange† and how it affected both Europe and the Americas. 4. How does Apess deal with the fact that the Pequot supported the English in King Phillip’s War? Does Apess’s writing tell us more about Pequots in the nineteenth century or seventeenth century Massachusetts? Early European Exploration and Colonization. Leah S. Glaser VUS. 2 Describe how early European exploration and colonization resulted in cultural interactions among Europeans, Africans, and American Indians. For many years, students of American history have learned about the era of European exploration and colonization in terms of conquest and defeat. Europes entry into the Americas had economic and political motivations, but over the last several years historians have begun to emphasize that exploration and colonization also allowed cultural contacts and exchanges among three different continents: Europe, Africa, and America. Each society viewed the other through their respective perceptions and culture. Historians like Colin Calloway and Gary Nash explain that these relationships created new worlds for all. The nature of cultural contact and change in America varied from region to region, and can be traced to Europes different colonizing strategies and the response of the existing local population. America, Africa, and Europe: Three Worlds on the Eve of 1492 Contrary to longstanding European assumptions, native societies in the Americas possessed their own rich and varied cultures. An estimated 3 to 5 million people, speaking hundreds of languages, inhabited the region; with about 60 million people living in the Western Hemisphere, the population rivaled that of Europe and Africa. While they did not yet possess the same farming techniques or methods of transportation as those of Europe and Africa, these societies were diverse and sophisticated, and adapted continually to changing environments. Irrigation communities in the Southwest, mound cities in the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys, and the villages of the eastern woodlands characterized the nature of these societies at the time of European contact. Climatic changes, over hundreds of years, had altered farming patterns and prompted different groups to compete for dominance through warfare, as well as to participate in a vast trade network that spread across the continent. The African societies (like those of the American Indians and the Europeans) were highly dependent on the environmental conditions and varied widely across the continent. Africa very much resembled America in its diversity of cultures across deserts, grasslands, and forests, its established networks of trade, and resource competition. The early use of iron implements raised productivity and subsequently increased the continents population, which reached about 50 million by the fifteenth century. Much of that population was organized politically under large empires, like the Kingdom of Ghana. Ghana achieved architectural and artistic wealth principally through important trading contacts with the Middle and Far East. Other kingdoms also developed skilled craftsmanship, codes of law, and trading networks. Alongside these trade relationships, Muslim influences, which had spread throughout Africa since the eleventh century, also shaped African community life. African societies differed most markedly from those in Europe in terms of familial organization (matrilineal rather than patrilineal). For example, property rights and inheritance descended through the mother. Europeans did not engage with Africa until the early fifteenth century, though they had been fascinated with the East for hundreds of years prior to contact. They were particularly eager to control the Mediterranean trade routes that tapped into the vast markets and goods. Throughout the Middle Ages, the East also served as a battleground for two of the worlds fastest growing religions, Islam and Christianity, as evidenced in the Crusades. The Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire ruled supreme over Europe in opposition to the growing Ottoman (Islamic) Empire. By the fifteenth century, the invention of the printing press and improvements in navigation techniques (like the compass and the hourglass) helped spawn the Renaissance, an era known for challenging the power of the Church and celebrating human possibility though exploration, ideas, art, and literature. Spain joined in this creative celebration, but also gained political power by successfully defeating Islamic forces in Granada and by consolidating two powerful Catholic monarchies through the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille. In 1492, the two Catholic leaders launched the Inquisition to make Spain, once part of the Ottoman Empire, into a fully Catholic country. Their efforts spawned the Reconquista, an era fueled by violence and religious intolerance as Spain sought to expel all Jews and Muslims from its borders. Amidst this political climate and activity, Ferdinand and Isabella granted a Genoan explorer, Christopher Columbus, funding to expand Spains empire. 1492: Americas Indians Encounter the Spanish After he landed on the islands we know today as the Bahamas, Columbus explored the island of Hispaniola where he met the lands native inhabitants. He and his crews returned to the Caribbean three more times. Columbuss so called discovery offered Spain tremendous opportunities for wealth, particularly from the mining of gold and silver. It also provided new soil for European plants like sugar, cof

Research Study Quantitative

Research Study Quantitative Question # 1 Purposes and benefits of sections of Independent study My independent study is related to quantitative research model. Purpose of the quantitative research is to do numerical summaries, generalizations across populations and comparisons between populations. It includes few variables (Delay time, work order, number of different products) and many cases (Five sets of data with each set consisting of 500 products). These quantitative research methods use experimental designs. The various experimental methodologies are: Quasi Experimental Designs RCT: Randomized Controlled Trials Baseline Data Posttest Only Design Longitudinal Design Out of these experimental methodologies, my study falls under randomized controlled trails, where I generate a random data of five sets each set consisting of 500 different kinds of products. Introduction Purpose: The purpose of my study introduction is to provide background information for the readers for the research reported in the study. It establishes a framework for the research, so that readers can understand how it is related to other research (Creswell, 2003 p.73). It also establishes the issue or concern leading to the research by conveying information about a research problem (Creswell, 2003 p.74). In this, the problem is best addressed by understanding the factors or variables which are the process time, product order that influence an outcome delay time (Creswell, 2003 p.75). It provides the understanding of the problem that explains or relates to an outcome delay time and helps the researcher best understand and explain the problem why the delay time is to be minimized (Creswell, 2003 p. 76). The research problem in the study Guiding research questions Reviewed studies addressing the problem Deficiencies in past literature and limitations Importance of a study for an audience Benefits: By writing an effective introduction chapter, a reader can figure out the problem leading to the study i.e., how the delay time is optimized by arranging the production work order, reviewing the literature about the problem to find whether there are any related theories that is done by other investigators, identifying deficiencies in the literature about the problem, targeting audiences and notifying the significance of the problem for this audience (Creswell, 2003 p.73). Literature Review Purpose: The purpose of the literature review is to share with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study being reported (Creswell, 2003 p.29). It relates a study to the larger ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Cooper, 1984; Marshall Rossman, 1999). It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study as well as a benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings. All or some of these reasons may be the foundation for writing the scholarly literature into a study (Miller, 1991). Benefits: The literature review helps to substantiate the problem and also suggests possible questions or hypotheses that need to be addressed (Creswell, 2003 p.46). Methodology Purpose: The purpose of methodology chapter is to bring focus on survey and experimental modes of inquiry. You will also explain the methodology you are using, why you chose that methodology and why you chose not to use other methods. The method that was used to collect data is explained in detail like how did I generated random data of five sets with each set consisting of 500 products using Microsoft Excel ad procedure I followed to find the real-time delay time. The reader will exactly know what was done with the collected data, to the point that he or she can replicate the study to get similar results. Benefits: With the help of methodology chapter, audiences can recognize the variation that exists in the qualitative, quantitative and mixed method studies, why I chose a quantitative study for the research problem I defined then it advances general guideline for procedures of the study. These guidelines include a discussion about the general characteristics of the study if the audiences are not familiar with the approach to research. (Source: Classroom material by Dr. Lynda Kenney) Results Purpose: The purpose of results chapter is to make a well-organized and objective presentation of the results by examining the collected data and application of either the descriptive or inferential statistical methods. Then the tables, graphs and figures of the analyzed data are also presented for sufficient support description to permit the reader to interpret them quickly and accurately (Leedy Ormrod, 2005). Benefits: The benefits of the results chapter is for readers to quickly interpret the conclusions and significance with the help of the tables, graphs, charts and figures obtained from the interpretation and analysis of the data. Flow Chart Purpose: The purpose of the flow chart is to explain the process of optimization of the production work order in a step-by-step process that is described in the study. Benefits: It makes the readers understand easily at a glance what has done in the entire study. It also helps the researcher to make and follow the created flow chart while analyzing the data. Discussion Purpose: The purpose of the discussion chapter is to highlight the main theories and conclusion used in the research study so that a reader can easily figure out what theories the researcher used in implementing and analyzing the data. Each major conclusion is clearly explained and compared with the results of the similar work by other investigators. Then, the researcher continually connects her findings with the theoretical frameworks. Any new or unusual results are also explained(Leedy Ormrod, 2005). If the researcher is not sure about the significance of the results or could not understand the phenomenon of the data, it is sometimes worthwhile to present a speculative discussion outlining several possible outcomes by alerting the readers that such a discussion is speculative. Benefits: The benefits of the discussion chapter are to make grand conclusions which support the subsequent paragraphs. Here, the entire conclusions, implications or the effects due to each conclusion including the minor and major effects are presented. The discussion also includes the method of computation or derivation of the study. Such situation arises when one figure is derived from preceding figures. If the application or method is involved, then a complete example with the method is to be explained for complete understanding to the reader. Finally, explained the significance and outcomes of the study. Conclusions Purpose: The purpose of the conclusions chapter is to make a summary of the conclusions that are presented in previous chapter. The researcher also points out both what are found and what are not found. It is also the section examined by the prospective reader with limited available time (Leedy Ormrod, 2005). Benefits: Although the researcher has previously presented each of the conclusions, conclusions chapter tell us the reader the ultimate effect or the benefit of the study. In my study, I have explained how the delay time is minimized or optimized by arranging the production work order so that it is quite helpful to readers, who might easily lose track of some important conclusions as they read earlier portions of a study(Leedy Ormrod, 2005). In addition to this, a prospective reader will able to quickly examine the research in limited time. I explained the benefits of my study that findings of this research will aid industries, retails stores by demonstrating how the algorithm is currently used, and how retail stores can assist customers to implement universal algorithm. Industries may benefit from models of evaluating arrangement of parts of a product on an assembly line. Question # 2 Framework Elements of Research: For every research proposal, a definite framework exists to follow a certain pattern. Creswell (2003) suggested that from lots of different types and terms in the literature, he focused on three approaches: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approach. The first two has been available for decades, and the last is new and still developing in form and substance. To understand them, we need to consider three framework elements: philosophical assumption about what constitute knowledge claims, general procedures of research called strategies of inquiry, and detailed procedure of data collection, analysis and writing, called methods. For that Creswell (2003) proposed (which was developed by Crotty) three questions to the design of research: What knowledge claims are being made by the researcher? What strategies of inquiry will inform the procedures? What methods of data collection and analysis will be used? Framework Elements of Quantitative Research Knowledge claims: Stating a knowledge claim means that researcher start with a project with certain assumptions about how we will learn and what we will learn during their inquiry. These are called as paradigms. Philosophically, researchers make claims about what is knowledge (ontology), how we know it (epistemology), what values go into it (axiology), how we write about it (rhetoric), and the process for studying it (methodology). There are four schools for knowledge claims as what follow. Those are post positive knowledge claims, socially constructed knowledge claims, advocacy or participatory knowledge claims and finally pragmatic knowledge claims. For quantitative research, the knowledge claims are post positivism which includes determination, reductionism, empirical observation and measurement, and theory verification. Post positivism refers the thinking after positivism; challenging the absolute truth and recognizing that we can not be â€Å"positive† about claims of knowledge when studying the behaviors and action of human. Traditionally, the post positivist assumptions have cited claims about what evidences knowledge. Post positivism reflects in determining the effects or outcomes, examining the causes that reflect the outcomes by doing experiments, reducing the ideas into a small, set of ideas to test such as variables that constitute hypothesis and research questions, developing numeric measures of observations and studying the behavior of individuals. The problem studied by post positivist reflects a need to examine causes that influence outcomes. It is also reductionism; testing selected variables that constitut e hypothesis and research questions, so it is based on careful observation and measurement of the objective reality in the world. Researching is for test or refining the existing laws or theories. Strategies of inquiry: A stage of inquiry in quantitative research includes numerical summaries, generalizations across populations and comparisons between populations. Strategies of inquiry provide specific designs for procedures in the research design. Like knowledge claims, strategies have multiplied over the years as the computer technology has pushed forward data analysis and the ability to analyze complex models. Strategies associated with quantitative research were those that invoked the post positivist perspectives. These include true experiments and less vigorous experiments called quasi-experiments and correlational studies (Campbell Stanley, 1963), and specific single-subject experiments (Cooper, heron, Heward, 1987). But, these days, quantitative research strategies involved complex experiments with many variables and treatments like factorial designs and repeated measure designs. Strategies associated with quantitative approach are: Experiment: It is about random assignment of subject to treatment conditions and includes quasi-experiment with nonrandomized design. My study used experimental strategy for generating the randomized data and analyzing the data with Microsoft office tools. Non-experimental designs, such as Surveys: it is studying by using questionnaires or structured interviews with the intent of generalizing from sample to a population. These include cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection, with the intent of generalizing from a sample to a population (Babbie, 1990) Research methods: The third major element that goes into a research approach is the specific methods of data collection and analysis. For quantitative research, the research methods I used are predetermined instrument based questions such as performance data, attitude data, observational data and census statistical data using Microsoft Excel. I considered full range of possibilities for data collection in the study by organizing these research methods with the use of closed-ended versus pen-ended questions and their focus on numeric versus non-numeric data analysis. Question # 5 Validity and generalizability aspects of quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods research: Qualitative research validity The degree to which the interpretations of the data accurately describe the phenomenon under investigation is known as validity. Validity is seen as a strength of the qualitative study which is used in determining whether the findings are accurate from the standpoint of the researcher, the participant, or the readers (Creswell Miller, 2000).In addition to validity, the terms used are trustworthiness, authenticity, and credibility. There are eight primary strategies, organized from most frequently used and easy to implement to those occasionally used to and difficult to implement. Various qualitative procedures should be used to make a research validate. Some of the procedures are qualitative research paradigm and ethnographic research design. Methods for establishing the validity are: Negative case analysis Presenting the negative or discrepant information that runs counter to the themes Audit trail Clarifying the bias the researcher brings to the study Prolonged field experience Spending prolonged time in the field to develop an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study Data triangulation triangulate different data sources of information by examining evidence from the sources and using it to build a coherent justification Member checking to determine the accuracy of the qualitative findings Rich, thick description Quantitative research validity The degree to which the evidence supports that the interpretations of the data are correct and that the manner in which the interpretations are used is appropriate. Threats to validity: There are several threats to the validity that raise the potential issues about the researcher ability to conclude the intervention affects of an outcome. They are internal threats, external threats, statistical conclusion threats, and construct validity threats. Internal validity threats are experimental procedures, treatments, or experiences of the participants that threaten the researchers ability to draw correct inferences from the data in an experiment. These involve due to inadequate procedures like changing the instrument or a tool during an experiment, changing the control group participants under study etc. External validity threats arise when the researcher draws incorrect inferences from the sample data to other persons, other settings, and past or future situations. Statistical conclusion validity arises when experimenters draw inaccurate inferences from the data because of inadequate statistical power or the violation of the assumptions. Construct validity threat arises when investigators use inadequate definitions and measure of variables. Methods of establishing validity Experiment review Data triangulation Participant feedback Regression analysis Statistical analysis Types of validity evidence Content Construct Criterion Consequential Procedure: A researcher need to describe in detain the procedure for conducting the experiments ad the reader should be able to see the design being used, the observation, the treatment, and the timeliness of activities. Typical steps used for the procedure are follows. Administering the measures of the dependent variable or a variable that closely correlated with the dependent variable to the research participants. Assign participants to the matched pairs on the basis of their scores Randomization. Randomly assign one member of each pair to the experimental group and other member to the control group Expose experimental group to experimental treatment and alternative treatment to control group. Administer measures of the dependent variables to the experimental and control groups Compare the performance of the experimental and control groups. Statistical analysis: A reader should be able to identify clearly the statistical analyses that are used in the experiment. Various statistical analyses that can be performed during the study are: Descriptive analysis reporting the means, standard deviations and ranges. Inferential analysis- performing the hypothesis tests using ‘t tests, analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, or multivariate analysis of variance. A researcher can also use the factorial designs, both interaction and main effects of ANOVA. Mixed methods research: Examine potential sources of error and ask: Chance: Random error in sampling from a population. 1. Type I (alpha) error: The probability of falsely saying that there is a difference between two populations. 2. Type II (beta) error: The probability of falsely saying that there is no difference between two populations. How (in what direction) would the threats to validity affect the findings? Bias: Systematic distortion 1. Selection bias Systematic slant in how subjects are assembled or retained for study 2. Information bias Systematic distortion from inaccuracy in measurement or classification of study variables Were potential sources of error adequately controlled in the design and analysis? Confounding: Misattribution of cause and effect How do validity concerns affect your interpretation or application of the data? In the Design Study design appropriate for the question B,C Adequate power A Complete accounting of eligible patients B1 Verification of information and Blinding B2 Multiple control groups B,C Randomization, Restriction and matching C In the Analysis Best case / worst case scenario and Sensitivity analysis B,C Adjustment B1,C Mathematical modeling C A Reduces the role of chance; B1 Reduces selection bias ; B2 Reduces information bias; C Reduces confounding References Creswell, J. W. 2003. Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. SAGE. Thousand Oaks. USA. Leedy, P. D., Ormrod, J. E., (2005). Practical Research: Planning and Design. PEARSON. Columbus. Ohio. Olds, B., Moskal, B. Miller, R. â€Å"Assessment in Engineering Education†, Journal of Engineering Education , to appear Jan. 2005. Moskal, B., Leydens, J. Pavelich, M. Validity, reliability and the assessment of engineering education. Journal of Engineering Education , Vol. 91, No. 3, 351-354, 2002.

Media, Sexuality And Teenagers

Media, Sexuality And Teenagers Youths living in the 21st century spend inordinate amounts of time with the media. They laugh with characters who are funny; they viciously attack and destroy evil creatures as they play their favorite video games; they see advertising for candy, makeup, and even liquor; they listen to rap lyrics about sex and violence; and they interact with people all over the world online. Needless to say, it is a completely different social world than the one their parents and grandparents faced during childhood and therefore, the effect media has on teenagers is overpowering. In constant contact with the media, Teenagers today are faced with often conflicting and confusing messages about how they are supposed to behave sexually. While adults, schools, and religious institutions are still reluctant to provide sexuality education for adolescents, the mass media is not at all reticent, portraying sexual behavior as riveting, common in everyday life, emotionally and physically risk free. Undoubtedly , the sexuality presented in the media has had a significant effect on the behavior of modern day teenagers, making the confusion between media and reality and the perception that teens have on reality. Considering the effect media has on adolescents. First of all, it must be recognized that over time, the amount of sexual content that is shown in the media has increased remarkably at a swift rate. Media and its leniency to what may or may not be shown or heard publicly have increased a great amount over the years. A study showed that Pornography is big business, generating $13 billion just in the U.S. in 2006 (IT Facts, 2007). Although sex magazines have greatly declined in circulation since the mid-1990s, that drop has been more than compensated for by video sales and rentals, cable and pay-per-view TV, and especially the explosive growth of Internet pornography, producing over 20% of the total revenue in 2006. (Bryant 305) Even the media that is meant for children is being tampered with and contaminated with information that most children do not and should not know. The book, Children, Adolescents, and the Media states that On television each year, American children and teenagers view nearly 14,000 sexual references, innuendoes, and behaviors, few of which (less than 170) involve the use of birth control, self-control, abstinence, or responsibility. (Strasburger 213) Adolescents today have too easy access to the variety of media and therefore, are more susceptible to any inappropriate or sexual content than their parents. There are four major sources of media that children and teenagers are exposed to. These are the shows that they view on television, the music, the games, and the Internet. When adolescents are exposed to this various media, they have a tendency to choose media and interact with it based on who they are or who they want to be at the moment. The assumptions of media uses are similar to gratifications theory, which suggests that media consumers come to the media with different needs and motives and that what they take away from the media will depend on why they came to it. (Brown 9) Moreover, what those adolescents learn also varies according to the adolescents sense of self-identity and lived experience. Since these teenagers are undergoing the crucial moment in their lives, shaping their own ego and identity and extremely vulnerable to all this tremendous amount of information from the media, what they choose to absorb from the media and what is sensational and stimulus in the media can be very influential. The exaggerated or distorted image of sex in the media is omnipresent and detrimental to adolescents who are not fully prepared to distinguish betwe en reality and situation that can only happen an unreal world, such as television show. One of the most influential media that affects teenagers is television. Many studies have documented televisions ability to transmit information and to shape attitudes. Television influences adolescents perception of social behavior and social reality. Television may offer teenagers a guideline for sexual behavior that they might not be able to observe anywhere else. Television stations such as Disney Channel, Nickelodeon or even Cartoon Network have been intensified and marketed in a way so that older children would continue to watch these channels. By doing this, the younger children who have initially always watched the shows are exposed to things that they shouldnt be experiencing. The most recent content analysis of television found that more than 75% of prime-time kids shows on the major networks contain sexual content, but only 14% of incidents include any mention of the risks or responsibilities of sexual activity or the need for contraception. This figure rises to 27% for sh ows depicting or implying intercourse. (Kunkel, Eyal, Finnerty, Biely, Donnerstein) Television is definitely one of the sources of media which convey wrong image of sex. Television has a tremendous impact on the behavior of children and teenagers over time by giving them improper knowledge of sex. The media and the amount of sexual and violent content that is allowed to be shown not only on childrens stations but on stations that are meant to be viewed as families have increased a lot. An example of this is just the commercials that are advertised on television. Even on channels such as Nickelodeon, advertisements that are shown are not necessarily appropriate for children. It is known that Nickelodeon guides children towards MTV by featuring artists whose music and actions are inappropriate for young children in concerts and in Kids Choice Awards. (McEntire) A major part of television is also music channels, such as MTV and many more. These channels are the most universally watched channels by teenagers both male and female. On these channels, there are not only reality shows in which they show characters as violent and show sex as accepted, but the re are many music videos which show many images of sex and violence. An example of reality shows on music channels are The Real World and Laguna Beach on MTV, or shows such as Jersey Shore, in which the main character was a girl who was known because of being a stripper and having pictures on MySpace with revealing clothes. On VH1 there are shows such as Flavor Flave in which a retired rapper is perused by many young women or I Love New York where a young, ignorant acting female is trying to be won over by many men. In these shows, there are many illustrations of promiscuous actions that were not necessarily sex, but may have led up to sex by what is shown in the show. However, music videos by themselves are a serious issue with the media. A surprising amount of illustrations of sex are shown in music videos, which were reported in the article by McEntire that said, The average music video contains 93 sexual situations per hour. This includes eleven scenes actually depicting interco urse or oral sex. (McEntire) These numbers are alarming, and to know that these are the programs that almost all teenagers view on a daily basis is upsetting. As Television has become increasingly sexually explicit, Music plays a large part in the media affecting teenagers and their behavior. Many different types of music, such as Rap, Hip Hop, and Rock music are mainly directing its sales to the younger generation of people. The lyrics of these songs portray sex and violence. In many of these songs, they downgrade the worth of women and promote violence as it should be accepted. When the younger generation listens to these messages, as it is played repeatedly they begin to believe that it is the way that they should act, and lose sight of reality. In these songs, they also encourage the use of illegal substances to the younger generation such as drugs or Alcohol. An article proves that As the popularity of music among youth grows, the number of teens who are becoming more violent, more sexually active and who are experimenting which drugs is steadily increasing. (Keshan) Teenagers who listen to large amount and genres of music are less li kely to be affected by the messages depicted in the music but those who mainly listen to one type of music are more likely to take in the message given out in this music. The particular genres of Rap, Hip-Hop and Rock and Roll have a large impact on the behavior of young females, especially those of the African-American and His panic races. A study shows that Girls who watch 14 hours or more of rap music videos are more likely to engage in unsafe sex with multiple partners and get a STD. (McEntire) Just like most teenagers never take off their head phones playing their favorite music, video games are played by all ages of children, from little toddlers who are starting out learning letters or how to count to the older teenagers who play games with more detail and different situations. Video games over time have gotten more violent with content that is not appropriate for teenagers. From games of racing and sports such as football or baseball, to games that involve shooting and killing as if it was normal. These games do not only affect the behavior of teens, but they desensitize the future generations and how they depict violence. Furthermore, the worst thing is that they include sexual images such as naked women and strippers roaming a town or even raping scene as a mission. These games provoke teenagers to have strong desire to try out those distorted sexual images in reality. Grand Theft Auto is a game that is popular among teenagers, especially boys. A study depicts that Gr and Theft Auto: Vice City, a video game rated M, was the best selling game among teens in 2002. In the game, players can simulate having sex with a prostitute and then killing her. (Greenspan) This is just one example of many ways that violence and sexuality can be shown in multiple different video games. These games are mainly marketed to males, between the ages of 13 and 17 who would be more likely to go out and ask for a game containing violence or cars. Although this game is marked as M for mature, many parents wouldnt know or check for the rating of a video game when purchasing the game for their child. Although adolescents enjoy their pastime playing video games, the largest source of information that teenagers spend most of their time doing would to be the internet. With search engines such as Google, it is possible to find any information that may want to be discovered, whether it is appropriate or not. However, this exposure to inappropriate content is not always by the free will of the person sitting behind the screen. According to a study shown in 2006 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.increased proportions of youth internet users were encountering unwanted exposures to sexual material and online harassment, but decreased proportions were receiving unwanted sexual solicitations (Online Victimization of Youth) which basically means that while being on sites that they had business being on, ads and pop-ups that were not necessarily appropriate appeared on the screen. This is the case on many children sites, such as Nickelodeon.com or NickJr.com. These advertisement and pop-ups which are mostly ab out pornography and mortgage increase teenagers curiosity and lead them to explore those inappropriate sites. All these contents in television, music, game, and internet, enhancing adolescents lust and injecting wrong perception of sex into teens affect the behavior of them and eventually lead to social catastrophe. A study manifests that Teens who see and hear a lot about sex in the media may be more than twice as likely to have early sexual intercourse as those who are rarely exposed to sexual contentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦12 to 14-years old exposed to the most sexual content in movies, music m magazines, and on television were 2.2 times more likely to have had sexual intercourse when re-interviewed two years later than their peers who had a lighter sexual media diet. (Lagorio) This has agitated the mindsets of young children, primarily in America. Teen pregnancies over the past 10 years have been largely affected by the change in censorship in the media. As the amount of sexual content increased in the media, the amount of teen pregnancies or children having children has elevated proportionally. With the portrayal of teenagers having children in shows such as The Secret Life of an American Teenager in which the main character is a girl who is pregnant, the idea of teenage girls getting pregnant is becoming more accepted and more common. This girl carrying a child in the television show is only depicted as a fifteen years old, and although she is carrying a child she still maintains a child-like innocence herself, which emphasizes the fact that she is only a child carrying another chilled. This however, is not only the case in television shows. Many girls between the ages of 14 and 17 are turning out pregnant, although it is obvious that they arent capable of supporting a child on their own. Since the statistic of young girls h aving babies has skyrocketed, many public school systems have felt the need to add Daycare Units into the schools so that they can promote the teenage mothers staying in school, and having free care for their child while they continue to get an education. This all comes back to the media, which is unmonitored for the most part, and promotes messages of sex, and becoming caught in a sensual moment, which would result in a lack of protection because of no preparation. When sex is illustrated in many television shows, they make it as though the couple has sex without needing protection such as condoms. All these uncensored information from the media bring out a huge social consequence in a long term. The media, at large, does have an effect on the beliefs and behaviors of teenagers over a long period of time. In a society that limits access to sexual information, teenagers will look to the media for answers to their questions. More important, the media may have a strong effect on teens without their even being aware of it, especially those whose parents do not instill in them a strong sense of family values. Although many adolescents try to get answers from the media about sex, unfortunately the media answers to these questions are usually not the healthy or accurate answers. Hence, in order to prevent any further tragedy befalling to teenagers, immediate solution has to be made. One of the possible solutions that would grant youth a healthier view of sex and sexuality is that widespread advertising of birth control in mainstream media. Advertising birth control represents one means of increasing teenagers access to it. Such advertising needs to address the risks of pregnancy, not merely the superficial difference that birth control pills can make. Unless new products such as the morning-after pill are widely advertised, teenagers will not know about them or use them. Comparative studies between the United States and Europe make it clear that countries that promote the use of birth control via advertising, sex education classes, and programming are rewarded with lower rates of teen pregnancy. (Strasburger 254), yet the media remain resistant. Given that eight studies now prove that making birth control available to teenagers does not increase the risk of early sexual intercourse, there is no longer any excuse to withhold access to it. Like advertising birth control, second solution would be having a greater responsibility and accountability of mainstream media for producing healthy and accurate messages about sex and sexuality. Entertainment industry executives need to realize that, their product is educating American children and teenagers, since media have become one of the most important sources for sexual information for young people today. Besides reforming mainstream media, middle and high schools should not underestimate the sex education and inform students the fallacy in the media. This would be resulted in teenagers being less likely to overestimate sexual activity among their peers and more aware of the truth about sex and sexual imagery in the media. Third key to protect teenagers from the unhealthy information from media is to execute more and better counter advertising. Only the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unwanted Pregnancy has engaged in long term efforts to counterprogram through the media. Although no clear data exists about this organizations success, several successful efforts involving counter advertising against tobacco and illicit drugs with teens as the target audience through the media have been demonstrated. Fourth solution would be having a greater sensitivity of parents to the influence of the media on adolescents. Many parents often seem not to see the impact of media on their children and teenagers. The most important steps that parents can take are to set rules about TV viewing, monitor what shows are being watched, and keep TV sets out of the bedroom. The last possible solution is to conduct better research on getting statistics on the effect of the media. Considerably more research needs to be funded, use a variety of methods and a variety of populations, and will need to take into account developmental, gender, and ethnic differences. School systems and parents need to grant access to researchers, and foundations need to fund such efforts. Foundations need to recognize media research as a new and much needed priority. Society needs to accept the fact that teenagers should be able to give consent for such research on their own and that parents can be informed about ongoing studies explaining the research. Although it is apparent that the medias negative effect on teenagers is catastrophic, we can take these resolutions discussed above and make adolescents prepared for unhealthy information from the media and enlighten them that some of sex and sexuality expressed in the media are false. Work Cited Brown, jane, Steele, Jeanne, and Walsh-Childers, kim. Sexual teens, sexual media: investigating medias influence on adolescent. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Eribaum Associates, Inc. Publishers Bryant, Jennings, and Mary Oliver. Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research. 3rd ed. New York, NY: TaylorFrancis, 2009. Greenspan.Sam. How the Silver Screen Affects Your Teen. 2004, 10 Feb 2010 Hart, Eileen. Teens, Sex, and Media. 2002, 15 Jan 2010 Lenhart, Amanda. Teens and Social Media. 19 Dec 2007 InternetAmerican Life Project. 17 Feb 2009 Lagorio, Christine. Media May Promt Teen Sex. 03 Apr 2006 17, Feb 2009 McEntrie, Teresa. The Prevalence And Effects of Sex In The Media. 2002 Strasburger, victor. Children, Adolescents, and the Media. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, inc, 2009.

ear Essay -- essays research papers

The ear is an organ of the body that is used for hearing and balance. It is connected to the brain by the auditory nerve and is composed of three divisions, the external ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The greater part of which is enclosed within the temporal bone. The ear is looked upon as a miniature receiver, amplifier and signal-processing system. The structure of the outer ear catching sound waves as they move into the external auditory canal. The sound waves then hit the eardrum and the pressure of the air causes the drum to vibrate back and forth. When the eardrum vibrates its neighbour the malleus then vibrates too. The vibrations are then transmitted from the malleus to the incus and then to the stapes. Together the three bones increase the pressure which in turn pushes the membrane of the oval window in and out. This movement sets up fluid pressure waves in the perilymph of the cochlea. The bulging of the oval window then pushes on the perilymph of the scala vestibuli. From here the pressure waves are transmitted from the scala vestibuli to the scala tympani and then eventually finds its way to the round window. This causes the round window to bulge outward into the middle ear. The scala vestibuli and scala tympani walls are now defor med with the pressure waves and the vestibular membrane is also pushed back and forth creating pressure waves in the endolymph inside the cochlear duct. These waves then causes the membrane to vibrate, which in turn cause the hairs cells of the spiral organ to move against the tectorial membrane. The bending of the stereo cilia produces receptor potentials that in the end lead to the generation of nerve impulses. The External or Outer Ear - comprises of the auricle or pinna which is the fleshy part of the outer ear. It is cup-shaped and collects and amplifies sound waves which then passes along the ear canal to the ear drum or tympanic membrane. The rim of the auricle is called the helix and the inferior portion is called the lobule. The external auditory canal is a carved tube and contains a few hair and ceruminous glands which are specialized sebaceous or oil glands. These secrete ear wax or cerumen. Both the hairs and the cerumen help prevent dust and foreign objects from entering the ear. A number of people produce large amounts of cerumen, and this sometimes cause the build up to be impacted and can bri... ...on on the position of the head in space for static equilibrium making it essential for maintaining appropriate posture and balance, where as dynamic they detect linear acceleration and deceleration. There are two kinds of cells in the two maculae, hair cells and supporting cells. The hair cells are the sensory receptors. Laying over the hair cells are columnar supporting cells that probably secrete the thick, gelatinous, glycoprotein layer called the otolithic membrane and over the membrane is a layer of dense calcium carbonate crystals called otoliths. When the head is tilted, the otoliths shift, and the hairs beneath respond to the change in pressure and bending the hair bundles. Dynamic equilibrium functions in the three semicircular ducts, the saccule and the utricle. The two ventical ducts are the anterior and posterior semicircular ducts. The lateral semicircular duct is horizontal. In the dilated portion of each duct, the ampulla, is a small elevation called the crista. This contains hair cells and supporting cells which are also covered by a mass of gelatinous material which is called cupula. When the head moves the attached semicircular ducts and hair cells move with it.